Cosmetic Surgery

Assorted cosmetics and tools

Woman having a makeup.
Cosmetics are substances used to enhance the appearance or odor of the human body. Cosmetics include skin-care creams, lotions, powders, perfumes, lipsticks, fingernail and toe nail polish, eye and facial makeup, towelettes, permanent waves, colored contact lenses, hair colors, hair sprays and gels, deodorants, hand sanitizer, baby products, bath oils, bubble baths, bath salts, butters and many other types of products. A subset of cosmetics is called “make-up,” which refers primarily to colored products intended to alter the user’s appearance. Many manufacturers distinguish between decorative cosmetics and care cosmetics. The word cosmetics derives from the Greek κοσμητική τέχνη (kosmetikē tekhnē), meaning “technique of dress and ornament”, from κοσμητικός (kosmētikos), “skilled in ordering or arranging” and that from κόσμος (kosmos), meaning amongst others “order” and “ornament”.
The manufacture of cosmetics is currently dominated by a small number of multinational corporations that originated in the early 20th century, but the distribution and sale of cosmetics is spread among a wide range of different businesses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) which regulates cosmetics in the United States defines cosmetics as: “intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body’s structure or functions.” This broad definition includes, as well, any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category.

History

Nefertiti bust with eye liner applied

An 1889 Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec painting of a woman applying cosmetics to her face
Main article: History of cosmetics
The first archaeological evidence of cosmetics usage was found in Egypt around 3500 BC during the Ancient Egypt times with some of royalty owning make-up, such as Nefertiti, Nefertari, mask of Tutankhamun, etc. The Ancient Greeks and Romans also used cosmetics. The Romans and Ancient Egyptians used cosmetics containing poisonous mercury and often lead. The ancient kingdom of Israel was influenced by cosmetics as recorded in the Old Testament—2 Kings 9:30 where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC. The Biblical book of Esther describes various beauty treatments as well.
In the Middle Ages, although its use was frowned upon by Church leaders, many women still wore cosmetics. A popular fad for women during the Middle Ages was to have a pale-skinned complexion, which was achieved through either applying pastes of lead, chalk, or flour, or by bloodletting. Women would also put white lead pigment that was known as “ceruse” on their faces to appear to have pale skin.
Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history. For example, in the 19th century, make-up was used primarily by prostitutes, and Queen Victoria publicly declared makeup improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors. Adolf Hitler told women that face painting was for clowns and not for the women of the master race.
Women in the 19th century liked to be thought of as fragile ladies. They compared themselves to delicate flowers and emphasized their delicacy and femininity. They aimed always to look pale and interesting. Sometimes ladies discreetly used a little rouge on the cheeks, and used “belladonna” to dilate their eyes to make their eyes stand out more. Make-up was frowned upon in general especially during the 1870s when social etiquette became more rigid.
Actresses however were allowed to use make up and famous beauties such as Sarah Bernhardt and Lillie Langtry could be powdered. Most cosmetic products available were still either chemically dubious, or found in the kitchen amid food colorings, berries and beetroot.
By the middle of the 20th century, cosmetics were in widespread use by women in nearly all industrial societies around the world.
Cosmetics have been in use for thousands of years. The absence of regulation of the manufacture and use of cosmetics has led to negative side effects, deformities, blindness, and even death through the ages. Examples of this were the prevalent use of ceruse (white lead), to cover the face during the Renaissance, and blindness caused by the mascara Lash Lure during the early 20th century.
The worldwide annual expenditures for cosmetics today is estimated at $19 billion. Of the major firms, the largest is L’Oréal, which was founded by Eugene Schueller in 1909 as the French Harmless Hair Colouring Company (now owned by Liliane Bettencourt 26% and Nestlé 28%; the remaining 46% is traded publicly). The market was developed in the USA during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II and Estée Lauder just after.
Beauty products are now widely available from dedicated internet-only retailers, who have more recently been joined online by established outlets, including the major department stores and traditional bricks and mortar beauty retailers.
Like most industries, cosmetic companies resist regulation by government agencies like the FDA, and have lobbied against this throughout the years. The FDA does not have to approve or review the cosmetics, or what goes in them before they are sold to the consumers. The FDA only regulates against the colors that can be used in the cosmetics and hair dyes. The cosmetic companies do not have to report any injuries from the products; they also only have voluntary recalls on products.
Criticism and controversy

Further information: Campaign for Safe Cosmetics and Testing cosmetics on animals
During the 20th century, the popularity of cosmetics has increased rapidly. Cosmetics are increasingly used by girls at a young age, especially in the United States. Due to the fast-decreasing age of make-up users, many companies, from high-street brands like Rimmel to higher-end products like Estee Lauder, have catered to this expanding market by introducing more flavored lipsticks and glosses, cosmetics packaged in glittery, sparkly packaging and marketing and advertising using young models. The social consequences of younger and younger beautification has had much attention in the media over the last few years.
Criticism of cosmetics has come from a variety of sources including some feminists, Islamists, Christianists, animal rights activists, authors and public interest groups. There is a growing awareness and preference for cosmetics that are without any supposedly toxic ingredients, especially those derived from petroleum, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), and parabens.
Numerous published reports have raised concern over the safety of a few surfactants. SLS causes a number of skin issues including dermatitis.
Parabens can cause skin irritation and contact dermatitis in individuals with paraben allergies, a small percentage of the general population. Animal experiments have shown that parabens have a weak estrogenic activity, acting as xenoestrogens.
Prolonged use of makeup has also been linked to thinning eyelashes.
Synthetic fragrances are widely used in consumer products. Studies concluded from patch testing show synthetic fragrances are made of many ingredients which cause allergic reactions.
Cosmetics companies have been criticised for making pseudoscientific claims about their products which are misleading or unsupported by scientific evidence.
Makeup types

Lipstick, lip gloss, lip liner, lip plumper, lip balm, lip conditioner, lip primer, and lip boosters.
Foundation, used to smooth out the face and cover spots or uneven skin coloration. Usually a liquid, cream, or powder. Foundation primer can be applied before to get a smoother finish.
Powder, used to set the foundation, giving a matte finish, and also to conceal small flaws or blemishes.
Rouge, blush or blusher, cheek coloring used to bring out the color in the cheeks and make the cheekbones appear more defined. This comes in powder, cream, and liquid forms.
Bronzer, used to give skin a bit of color by adding a golden or bronze glow.
Mascara is used to darken, lengthen, and thicken the eyelashes. It is available in natural colors such as brown and black, but also comes in bolder colors such as blue, pink, or purple. There are many different formulas, including waterproof for those prone to allergies or sudden tears. Often used after an eyelash curler and mascara primer.

Eye shadow being applied

Broadway actor Jim Brochu applies make-up before the opening night of a play.

The chin mask known as chutti for Kathakali, a performing art in Kerala, India is considered the thickest makeup applied for any art form.
Eyelid glue, eye liner, eye shadow, eye shimmer, and glitter eye pencils as well as different color pencils used to color and emphasize the eyelids (larger eyes give a more youthful appearance).
Eyebrow pencils, creams, waxes, gels and powders are used to color and define the brows.
Nail polish, used to color the fingernails and toenails.
Concealer, Makeup used to cover any imperfections of the skin.
Cosmetics can also be described by the form of the product, as well as the area for application.
Cosmetics can be liquid or cream emulsions; powders, both pressed and loose; dispersions; and anhydrous creams or sticks.
Lip stain is a cosmetic product that contains either water or a gel base. To help the product stay on the lips, many stains may contain alcohol. These lip coloring products are available in a variety of formulas, colors, and application types. The idea behind lip stains is to temporarily saturate the lips with color with a dye, rather than applying a colored wax to the lips to color them. A lip stain is usually designed to be waterproof so that the color will be long lasting, and once the stain dries, it should not smear, stain, wear unevenly, or transfer to the teeth. A lip stain may come in a bottle with an applicator which is used to brush the stain onto the lips, and it can also come in a small jar, with users applying the stain with a finger or a cosmetic brush.
Make-up remover is the product used to remove the make-up products applied on the skin. It is used for cleaning the skin for other procedures, like applying any type of lotion at evening before the person go to sleep.
Skin care products

Also included in the general category of cosmetics are skin care products. These include creams and lotions to moisturize the face and body which are often formulated for different skin types per range, sunscreens to protect the skin from UV radiation and damage, skin lighteners, and treatment products to repair or hide skin imperfections (acne, wrinkles, dark circles under eyes, etc.), tanning oils to brown the skin.
Ingredients

Main article: Ingredients of cosmetics
While there is assurance from the largest cosmetic companies that ingredients have passed quality tests and official regulations, and are therefore generally safe to use, there is a growing preference for cosmetics that are without any “synthetic” ingredients, especially those derived from petroleum. Once a niche market, handmade and certified organic products are becoming more mainstream.
Ingredients’ listings in cosmetics are highly regulated in many countries. The testing of cosmetic products on animals is a subject of some controversy. It is now illegal in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Belgium, and a ban across the European Union came into effect in 2009.
Organic and natural ingredients
Even though many cosmetic products are regulated, there are still health concerns regarding the presence of harmful chemicals within these products. Aside from color additives, cosmetic products and their ingredients are not subject to FDA regulation prior to their release into the market. It is only when a product is found to violate Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) and Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA) after its release that the FDA may start taking action against this violation. With many new products released into the market every season, it is hard to keep track of the safety of every product. Some products carry carcinogenic contaminant 1,4- dioxane. Many cosmetic companies are coming out with “All natural” and organic products. All natural products contain mineral and plant ingredients and organic products are made with organic agricultural products. Products who claim they are organic are not, unless they are certified “USDA Organic.”
Mineral Makeup
Mineral makeup, another term for loose powder makeup foundation, largely comprises earth-based Ingredients. This product contains coverage pigments like zinc oxide and titanium dioxide, both of which are also physical sunscreens. The main ingredients (minerals such as mica, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide), have been the basis of most makeup foundations for decades, but many dermatologists report that because mineral makeup frequently eliminates classic irritants such as fragrances, binders, synthetic dyes, talc, and preservatives, it is considered purer and can be kinder to the skin.
Benefits of Mineral Makeup
Because titanium dioxide and zinc oxide have anti-inflammatory properties, certain mineral makeups can also have a calming effect on the skin, particularly important if you suffer from inflammatory problems such as rosacea or acne. Mineral makeup also is known for being noncomedogenic, and many manufacturers claim it also offers sun protection. This is mostly due to the high content of titanium dioxide and zinc oxide — two ingredients commonly found in traditional sunscreen.
See also: natural skin care
Cosmetic industry

The cosmetic industry is a profitable business for most manufacturers of cosmetic products. By cosmetic products, we understand anything that is intended for personal care such as skin lotions or sun lotions, makeup and other such products meant to emphasize one’s look. Given the technological development and the improvement of the manufacturing process of cosmetics and not least due to the constantly increasing demand of such products, this industry reported an important growth in terms of profit.
The cosmetic industry has not only grown only in the United States, but also in various parts of the world which have become famous for their cosmetic precuts. Some of these include France, Germany, Italy and Japan. It has been estimated that in Germany, the cosmetic industry generated sales of EUR 12.6 billion at retail sales, in 2008 which made of German cosmetic industry the 3rd in the world, after Japan and the United States. Also, it has been shown that in the same country, this industry has grown with nearly 5 percent in one year, from 2007 to 2008. The exports of Germany in this industry reached in 2008 EUR 5.8 billion whereas the imports of cosmetics totaled EUR 3 billion. The main countries that export cosmetics to Germany are France, Switzerland, the United States and Italy and they mainly consist of makeup and fragrances or perfumes for women.
After the United States, Japan is the second largest market for cosmetics in the world, a market worth about JPY 1.4 trillion per year.
The worldwide cosmetics and perfume industry currently generates an estimated annual turnover of US$170 billion (according to Eurostaf – May 2007). Europe is the leading market, representing approximately €63 billion, while sales in France reached €6.5 billion in 2006, according to FIPAR (Fédération des Industries de la Parfumerie – the French federation for the perfume industry). France is another country in which the cosmetic industry plays an important role, both nationally and internationally. Most products on whose label it is stated “Made in France” are valued on the international market. According to data from 2008, the cosmetic industry has risen constantly in France, for 40 consecutive years. In 2006, this industrial sector reached a record level of EUR 6.5 billion. Famous cosmetic brands produced in France include Vichy, Yves Saint Laurent, Yves Rocher and many others.
The Italian cosmetic industry is also an important player in the European cosmetic market. Although not as large as in other European countries, the cosmetic industry in Italy was estimated to reach EUR 9 billion in 2007. The Italian cosmetic industry is however dominated by hair and body products and not makeup as in many other European countries. In Italy, hair and body products make up approximately 30% of the cosmetic market. Makeup and facial care however are the first cosmetic products to be exported in the United States.
Due to the popularity of cosmetics, especially fragrances and perfumes, many designers who are not necessarily involved in the cosmetic industry came up with different perfumes carrying their names. Moreover, most actors and singers also have their own perfume line (such as Celine Dion). The designer perfumes are, like any other designer products, the most expensive in the industry as the consumer pays not only for the product but also for the brand. Famous Italian fragrances are produced by Giorgio Armani, Dolce and Gabbana and so on.
The European Commission and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are the two bodies making legislation in what concerns cosmetic industry and its various aspects within the European Union, respectively in the United States. In the European Union, the circulation of cosmetic products and their safety are law subjects since 1976. One of the newest amendments of the directive concerning cosmetic industry comes as a result of the attempt to ban animal testing. Therefore, testing cosmetic products on animals is illegal in the European Union from September 2004 and testing separate ingredients of such products on animals is also prohibited by law starting with March 2009.
The FDA joined with thirteen other Federal agencies in forming the Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM) in 1997 which is an attempt to ban animal testing and find other methods to test the cosmetic products.
The cosmetic industry worldwide seems to be continuously developing, now more than ever with the advent of the Internet companies. Many famous companies sell their cosmetic products online also in countries in which they do not have representatives.
Cosmetic careers

A professional make-up artist servicing a client
An account executive is responsible for visiting all department and specialty store counter sales and doors. They explain new products and “gifts with purchase” (free items given out upon purchase of a certain cosmetics item that costs more than a set amount).
A beauty adviser provides product advice based on the client’s skin care and makeup requirements. Beauty advisers can become certified through the Anti-Aging Beauty Institute.

Model Alek Wek receiving make-up from a professional.
A cosmetician is a professional who provides facial and body treatments for clients. The term cosmetologist is sometimes used interchangeably with this term, but most commonly refers to a certified professional. A freelance makeup artist provides clients with beauty advice and cosmetics assistance—usually paid by the cosmetic company by the hour.
Professionals in cosmetics marketing careers manage research focus groups, promote the desired brand image, and provide other marketing services (sales forecasting, allocation to different retailers, etc.).
Those involved in cosmetics product development design, create and refine cosmetics products. Some positions that fall under this category include chemists, quality assurance and packaging people.
Many involved within the cosmetics industry often specialize in a certain area of cosmetics such as special effects makeup or makeup techniques specific to the film, media and fashion sectors.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Full Service Hotel Management Structure

A typical organizational chart for a large hotel operation:
General Manager
Director of Room Operations
Front Office Manager
Front Desk Manager
Front Desk Supervisor
Rooms Coordinator
PBX Supervisor
Guest Services Manager
Concierge Supervisor
Bell Captain
Valet Captain
Executive Housekeeper
Housekeeping Manager
Laundry Supervisor
Custodial Supervisor
Director of Sales & Marketing
Senior Sales Manager
Sales Manager
Marketing Manager
Reservations Manager
Revenue Manager
Director of Food & Beverage
Restaurant Manager
Executive Chef
Room Service Manager
Bar Manager
Director of Events and Catering
Convention Services Manager
Event Manager
Catering Manager
Director of Finance
Finance Manager
Chief Engineer
Director of Human Resources
Director of Security
Information Technology Manager

Typical Qualifications for a Hotel Manager

Background and training required varies by management title and duties involved. Industry experience has proven to be an essential qualification for nearly any management occupation within the lodging industry.
Basic qualifications for a management occupation within a hotel usually consist of the following:
Industry Experience is the main factor
Education
A high school diploma is a required qualification for any management occupation.
A degree in Hospitality management studies or equivalent Business degree is often required or strongly preffered
A graduate degree may be desired for a General Manager position but is often not required with sufficient management experience and tenure.

Working Conditions

Hotel managers are generally exposed to long shifts that include late hours, weekends, and holidays due to the 24 hour operation of a hotel. The common workplace in hotels is a fast-paced environment, with high levels of interaction with guests, employees, investors, and other managers.
Upper management consisting of senior managers, department heads, and General Managers may sometimes enjoy a more desirable work schedule consisting of a more traditional business day including weekdays and days off on holidays.

In popular culture

The occupation of a hotel manager has appeared in many Hollywood films including the film Hotel Rwanda and other media outlets.

Derived from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the medical specialty.

A cardiothoracic surgeon performs a mitral valve replacement at the Fitzsimons Army Medical Center.

Surgery (from the Greek: χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via Latin: chirurgiae, meaning “hand work”) is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance.
An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply surgery. In this context, the verb operate means performing surgery. The adjective surgical means pertaining to surgery; e.g. surgical instruments or surgical nurse. The patient or subject on which the surgery is performed can be a person or an animal. A surgeon is a person who performs operations on patients. In rare cases, surgeons may operate on themselves. Persons described as surgeons are commonly physicians, but the term is also applied to podiatric physicians, dentists (or known as oral and maxillofacial surgeon) and veterinarians. Surgery can last from minutes to hours, but is typically not an ongoing or periodic type of treatment.
The term surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a physician, dentist / oral and maxillofacial surgeon, or veterinarian.

At a hospital, modern surgery is often done in an operating theater using surgical instruments, an operating table for the patient, and other equipment. The environment and procedures used in surgery are governed by the principles of aseptic technique: the strict separation of “sterile” (free of microorganisms) things from “unsterile” or “contaminated” things. All surgical instruments must be sterilized, and an instrument must be replaced or re-sterilized if it becomes contaminated (i.e. handled in an unsterile manner, or allowed to touch an unsterile surface). Operating room staff must wear sterile attire (scrubs, a scrub cap, a sterile surgical gown, sterile latex or non-latex polymer gloves and a surgical mask), and they must scrub hands and arms with an approved disinfectant agent before each procedure.

Prior to surgery, the patient is given a medical examination, certain pre-operative tests, and their physical status is rated according to the ASA physical status classification system. If these results are satisfactory, the patient signs a consent form and is given a surgical clearance. If the procedure is expected to result in significant blood loss, an autologous blood donation may be made some weeks prior to surgery. If the surgery involves the digestive system, the patient may be instructed to perform a bowel prep by drinking a solution of polyethylene glycol the night before the procedure. Patients are also instructed to abstain from food or drink (an NPO order after midnight on the night before the procedure, to minimize the effect of stomach contents on pre-operative medications and reduce the risk of aspiration if the patient vomits during or after the procedure.
In the pre-operative holding area, the patient changes out of his or her street clothes and is asked to confirm the details of his or her surgery. A set of vital signs are recorded, a peripheral IV line is placed, and pre-operative medications (antibiotics, sedatives, etc.) are given. When the patient enters the operating room, the skin surface to be operated on, called the operating field, is cleaned and prepared by applying an antiseptic such as chlorhexidine gluconate or povidone-iodine to reduce the possibility of infection. If hair is present at the surgical site, it is clipped off prior to prep application. The patient is assisted by an anesthesiologist or resident to make a specific surgical position, then sterile drapes are used to cover all of the patient’s body except for the head and the surgical site or at least a wide area surrounding the operating field; the drapes are clipped to a pair of poles near the head of the bed to form an “ether screen”, which separates the anesthetist/anesthesiologist’s working area (unsterile) from the surgical site (sterile).
Anesthesia is administered to prevent pain from incision, tissue manipulation and suturing. Based on the procedure, anesthesia may be provided locally or as general anesthesia. Spinal anesthesia may be used when the surgical site is too large or deep for a local block, but general anesthesia may not be desirable. With local and spinal anesthesia, the surgical site is anesthetized, but the patient can remain conscious or minimally sedated. In contrast, general anesthesia renders the patient unconscious and paralyzed during surgery. The patient is intubated and is placed on a mechanical ventilator, and anesthesia is produced by a combination of injected and inhaled agents.

An incision is made to access the surgical site. Blood vessels may be clamped to prevent bleeding, and retractors may be used to expose the site or keep the incision open. The approach to the surgical site may involve several layers of incision and dissection, as in abdominal surgery, where the incision must traverse skin, subcutaneous tissue, three layers of muscle and then peritoneum. In certain cases, bone may be cut to further access the interior of the body; for example, cutting the skull for brain surgery or cutting the sternum for thoracic (chest) surgery to open up the rib cage.
Work to correct the problem in body then proceeds. This work may involve:
excision – cutting out an organ, tumor,[1] or other tissue.
resection – partial removal of an organ or other bodily structure.
reconnection of organs, tissues, etc., particularly if severed. Resection of organs such as intestines involves reconnection. Internal suturing or stapling may be used. Surgical connection between blood vessels or other tubular or hollow structures such as loops of intestine is called anastomosis.
ligation – tying off blood vessels, ducts, or “tubes”.
grafts – may be severed pieces of tissue cut from the same (or different) body or flaps of tissue still partly connected to the body but resewn for rearranging or restructuring of the area of the body in question. Although grafting is often used in cosmetic surgery, it is also used in other surgery. Grafts may be taken from one area of the patient’s body and inserted to another area of the body. An example is bypass surgery, where clogged blood vessels are bypassed with a graft from another part of the body. Alternatively, grafts may be from other persons, cadavers, or animals.
insertion of prosthetic parts when needed. Pins or screws to set and hold bones may be used. Sections of bone may be replaced with prosthetic rods or other parts. Sometime a plate is inserted to replace a damaged area of skull. Artificial hip replacement has become more common. Heart pacemakers or valves may be inserted. Many other types of prostheses are used.
creation of a stoma, a permanent or semi-permanent opening in the body
in transplant surgery, the donor organ (taken out of the donor’s body) is inserted into the recipient’s body and reconnected to the recipient in all necessary ways (blood vessels, ducts, etc.).
arthrodesis – surgical connection of adjacent bones so the bones can grow together into one. Spinal fusion is an example of adjacent vertebrae connected allowing them to grow together into one piece.
modifying the digestive tract in bariatric surgery for weight loss.
repair of a fistula, hernia, or prolapse
other procedures, including:
clearing clogged ducts, blood or other vessels
removal of calculi (stones)
draining of accumulated fluids
debridement- removal of dead, damaged, or diseased tissue
Surgery has also been conducted to separate conjoined twins.
Sex change operations
Blood or blood expanders may be administered to compensate for blood lost during surgery. Once the procedure is complete, sutures or staples are used to close the incision. Once the incision is closed, the anesthetic agents are stopped and/or reversed, and the patient is taken off ventilation and extubated (if general anesthesia was administered).
After completion of surgery, the patient is transferred to the post anesthesia care unit and closely monitored. When the patient is judged to have recovered from the anesthesia, he/she is either transferred to a surgical ward elsewhere in the hospital or discharged home. During the post-operative period, the patient’s general function is assessed, the outcome of the procedure is assessed, and the surgical site is checked for signs of infection. There are several risk factors associated with post operative complications, such as immune deficienty and obesity. Obesity has long been considered a risk factor for adverse post-surgical outcomes. It has been linked to many disorders such as obesity hypoventilation syndrome, atelectasis and pulmonary embolism, adverse cardiovascular affects, and wound healing complications.[2] If removable skin closures are used, they are removed after 7 to 10 days post-operatively, or after healing of the incision is well under way.
Post-operative therapy may include adjuvant treatment such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or administration of medication such as anti-rejection medication for transplants. Other follow-up studies or rehabilitation may be prescribed during and after the recovery period.

In special populations

Elderly people
Older adults have widely varying physical health. Frail elderly people are at significant risk of post-surgical complications and the need for extended care. Assessment of older patients before elective surgeries can accurately predict the patients’ recovery trajectories.[3] One frailty scale uses five items: unintentional weight loss, muscle weakness, exhaustion, low physical activity, and slowed walking speed. A healthy person scores 0; a very frail person scores 5. Compared to non-frail elderly people, people with intermediate frailty scores (2 or 3) are twice as likely to have post-surgical complications, spend 50% more time in the hospital, and are three times as likely to be discharged to a skilled nursing facility instead of to their own homes.[3] Frail elderly patients (score of 4 or 5) have even worse outcomes, with the risk of being discharged to a nursing home rising to twenty times the rate for non-frail elderly people.

History

Main articles: History of surgery, Prehistoric medicine, and History of general anesthesia
At least two prehistoric cultures had developed forms of surgery. The oldest for which there is evidence is trepanation,[4] in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intra cranial pressure and other diseases. Evidence has been found in prehistoric human remains from Neolithic times, in cave paintings, and the procedure continued in use well into recorded history. Surprisingly, many prehistoric and premodern patients had signs of their skull structure healing; suggesting that many survived the operation. Remains from the early Harappan periods of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 BCE) show evidence of teeth having been drilled dating back 9,000 years.[5] A final candidate for prehistoric surgical techniques is Ancient Egypt, where a mandible dated to approximately 2650 BCE shows two perforations just below the root of the first molar, indicating the draining of an abscessed tooth.
The oldest known surgical texts date back to ancient Egypt about 3500 years ago. Surgical operations were performed by priests, specialized in medical treatments similar to today. The procedures were documented on papyrus and were the first to describe patient case files; the Edwin Smith Papyrus (held in the New York Academy of Medicine) documents surgical procedures based on anatomy and physiology, while the Ebers Papyrus describes healing based on magic. Their medical expertise was later documented by Herodotus: “The practice of medicine is very specialized among them. Each physician treats just one disease. The country is full of physicians, some treat the eye, some the teeth, some of what belongs to the abdomen, and others internal diseases.”[6]
Other ancient cultures to have surgical knowledge include India, China and Greece.
Sushruta (also spelled Susruta or Sushrutha), c. 6th century BCE,is known as the Father of Surgery. He was a renowned surgeon of Ancient India and the author of the book Sushruta Samhita. In his book written in Sanskrit, he described over 120 surgical instruments, 300 surgical procedures and classifies human surgery into 8 categories. He performed Plastic Surgeries, Cataract operations and Cesarean. He used to give a kind of herbal juice equivalent to anesthetics. He was a surgeon from the Dhanvantari school of Ayurveda.[7]

Hippocrates stated in the oath (c. 400 BC) that general physicians must never practice surgery and that surgical procedures are to be conducted by specialists.
In ancient Greece, temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia (Greek: Ασκληπιεία, sing. Asclepieion Ασκληπιείον), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing.[8] At these shrines, patients would enter a dream-like state of induced sleep known as “enkoimesis” (Greek: ἐγκοίμησις) not unlike anesthesia, in which they either received guidance from the deity in a dream or were cured by surgery.

In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, three large marble boards dated to 350 BCE preserve the names, case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to the temple with a problem and shed it there. Some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place, but with the patient in a state of enkoimesis induced with the help of soporific substances such as opium
The Greek Galen was one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations — including brain and eye surgery — that were not tried again for almost two millennia.
In China, Hua Tuo was a famous Chinese physician during the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms era who performed surgery with the aid of anesthesia.
In the Middle Ages, surgery was developed to a high degree in the Islamic world. Abulcasis (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi), an Andalusian-Arab physician and scientist who practised in the Zahra suburb of Córdoba, wrote medical texts that shaped European surgical procedures up until the Renaissance.[10][unreliable source?]
In Europe, the demand grew for surgeons to formally study for many years before practicing; universities such as Montpellier, Padua and Bologna were particularly renowned. According to Peter Elmer and Ole Peter Grell, “Guy de Chauliac (1298-1368) was one of the most eminent surgeons of the Middle Ages. His Chirurgia Magna or Great Surgery (1363) was a standard text for surgeons until well into the seventeenth century.”[11] By the fifteenth century at the latest, surgery had split away from physic as its own subject, of a lesser status than pure medicine, and initially took the form of a craft tradition until Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia, laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals up to the modern time. Late in the nineteenth century, Bachelor of Surgery degrees (usually ChB) began to be awarded with the (MB), and the mastership became a higher degree, usually abbreviated ChM or MS in London, where the first degree was MB, BS.
Barber-surgeons generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialty of medicine, rather than an accessory field.[12] Basic surgical principles for asepsis etc., are known as Halsteads principles

Modern surgery
Modern surgery developed rapidly with the scientific era. Ambroise Paré (sometimes spelled “Ambrose”[13]) pioneered the treatment of gunshot wounds, and the first modern surgeons were battlefield doctors in the Napoleonic Wars. Naval surgeons were often barber surgeons, who combined surgery with their main jobs as barbers. Three main developments permitted the transition to modern surgical approaches – control of bleeding, control of infection and control of pain (anaesthesia).
Bleeding
Before modern surgical developments, there was a very real threat that a patient would bleed to death before treatment, or during the operation. Cauterization (fusing a wound closed with extreme heat) was successful but limited – it was destructive, painful and in the long term had very poor outcomes. Ligatures, or material used to tie off severed blood vessels, originated as early as ancient Rome,[14] and were improved by Ambroise Paré in the 16th century. Though this method was a significant improvement over the method of cauterization, it was still dangerous until infection risk was brought under control – at the time of its discovery, the concept of infection was not fully understood. Finally, early 20th century research into blood groups allowed the first effective blood transfusions.
Pain
Modern pain control through anesthesia was discovered by Crawford Long. Before the advent of anesthesia, surgery was a traumatically painful procedure and surgeons were encouraged to be as swift as possible to minimize patient suffering. This also meant that operations were largely restricted to amputations and external growth removals. Beginning in the 1840s, surgery began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of effective and practical anaesthetic chemicals such as ether and chloroform, discovered by James Young Simpson and later pioneered in Britain by John Snow. In addition to relieving patient suffering, anaesthesia allowed more intricate operations in the internal regions of the human body. In addition, the discovery of muscle relaxants such as curare allowed for safer applications.
Infection
Unfortunately, the introduction of anesthetics encouraged more surgery, which inadvertently caused more dangerous patient post-operative infections. The concept of infection was unknown until relatively modern times. The first progress in combating infection was made in 1847 by the Hungarian doctor Ignaz Semmelweis who noticed that medical students fresh from the dissecting room were causing excess maternal death compared to midwives. Semmelweis, despite ridicule and opposition, introduced compulsory handwashing for everyone entering the maternal wards and was rewarded with a plunge in maternal and fetal deaths, however the Royal Society in the UK still dismissed his advice. Significant progress came following the work of Louis Pasteur and his advances in microbiology, when the British surgeon Joseph Lister began experimenting with using phenol during surgery to prevent infections. Lister was able to quickly reduce infection rates, a reduction that was further helped by his subsequent introduction of the techniques of Robert Koch (such as the Steam Steriliser, which proved more successful than the carbolic acid spray that Lister had been using previously) to sterilize equipment, have rigorous hand washing and a later implementation of rubber gloves. Lister published his work as a series of articles in The Lancet (March 1867) under the title Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery. The work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern aseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years (Lister himself went on to make further strides in antisepsis and asepsis throughout his lifetime).

Filmmaking Education History

The formal teaching of film began with theory rather than practical technical training starting soon after the development of the film making process in the 1890s. Early film theorists were more interested in writing essays on film theory than in teaching students in a classroom environment. The Moscow Film School was founded in 1919 with Russian filmmakers including Sergei Eisenstein, Vsevolod Pudovkin, and Lev Kuleshov serving as faculty to disseminate their very distinct viewpoints on the purpose of film.[1]
Those seeking to learn the technical craft of filmmaking in the early days of cinema were largely self taught engineers or still photographers who experimented with new film technology. With the rise of commercial film making in the 1920s, most notably the Hollywood studio system, those seeking to learn the technical skills of film making most often started at the bottom of a hierarchical system and apprenticed under a more experienced person to learn the trade. Filmmakers such as Alfred Hitchcock and David Lean started in this way, beginning as a title card designer and clapperboard assistant, respectively, in the early 1920s. The USC School of Cinematic Arts was founded in the midst of this Hollywood system in 1929, and continues to be widely recognized as one of the most prestigious film schools in the world.[2]
The tradition of apprenticing up through a hierarchical system continues to this day within film studios and in television in many technical positions such as gaffers, grips, camera operators, and even into post production with editing and color correction. Independent lower budget filmmaking in the post war period using portable 16mm film cameras allowed filmmakers like John Cassavetes in the United States, along with members of the French New Wave and Italian Neorealism in Europe, to circumvent the classical system.
The notion of a granting a four year college degree in film took root in the 1960s with the founding of prestigious film departments like the New York University Tisch School of the Arts (1965), Walt Disney founded California Institute of the Arts (1961), the University of Texas department of Radio-Television-Film (1965) and the Columbia University School of the Arts (1965).[3] Over the years competition for admissions to these programs has steadily increased with many undergraduate programs accepting less than 10% of applicants, and with even more stringent selection for graduate programs.
In the 1990s and 2000s, the increased difficulties in getting into and the financial costs of attending these programs have caused many to spend their money self financing their own features or attending a shorter trade school program for around the same costs. Film trade schools however rarely offer more than technical knowledge, and often cost more than a degree from a public university without providing the security of a four year college degree to fall back on.

Types of Filmmaking Education schools (Film Schools)

A film school may be part of an existing public or private college or university, or part of a privately owned for-profit institution. Depending on whether the curriculum of a film school meets its state’s academic requirements for the conferral of a degree, completion of studies in a film school may culminate in an undergraduate or graduate degree, or a certificate of completion.
Many film schools still teach students how to use actual film in their productions, although the incorporation of digital media in film school curricula has risen drastically in recent years. Some schools offer only digital filmmaking courses, eschewing instruction in the medium of film altogether. The use of digital cameras and digital media is significantly less expensive than film cameras and film stock, and allows a film school or department to offer more equipment for students with which to learn and use for their projects. In addition, digital media (such as DVD) is often used for in-class screenings.
In recent years, online film schools of sorts have sprung up teaching film making through articles, tutorial videos, and interactive forums. The next generation of digital cinematography using the large sensors and manual features available in still DSLR cameras has lowered the barrier further towards creating inexpensive digital video that compares closely to 35mm film.[4]

Filmmaking Education Benefits debated

Professionals in the film industry hold a variety of opinions on the relevance of a degree in film in relation to the ability to find work and succeed in the field. As in many professions in the arts, some feel that talent cannot be taught. With respect to filmmaking, others feel that learning techniques and understanding the business is crucial to one’s success as a filmmaker[5].
Those who argue against the necessity of film school cite the high cost of such an education as prohibitive, and assert that an aspiring filmmaker’s money would be better spent on the actual making of a film, the experience of which would offer a more practical hands-on education. At many film schools, including NYU and USC, initial student films in non digital programs are shot with non synch Arri-S or Bolex film cameras manufactured in the mid 20th century. These films are typically shot on black and white reversal film with no dialog, or limited sound added after shooting. Supporters argue that shooting films like these challenge students to creatively express their story without relying on dialog or other modern conventional devices. Opponents question the practicality of having students invest a substantial amount of money using equipment that is no longer used in the industry, and doing simple filmmaking exercises that could be recreated for much less. [6]
Film school proponents argue that a formal education allows for a more rounded theoretical understanding of techniques artistic approaches, and offers the opportunity to gain from the knowledge and experience of professional instructors who work in, or who have worked in, the industry. Often cited as another benefit of film school are the opportunities available to students to work as an intern for filmmakers or in related businesses, such as post-production editing facilities, and to network with others interested in filmmaking who may be in a position to collaborate with the student on a project or to eventually offer work in the industry. Most film schools will hold a festival, or showcase, of student works at the end of a semester or school year. The more prestigious institutions often invite industry executives and producers to attend. However, ambitious individuals not in film school can also pursue such opportunities on their own through cold-calling, joining film industry-related organizations such as IFP, or submitting their work to independent film festivals.
The rise and popularity of independent filmmaking and digital video have influenced this debate, as anyone with a digital camera can shoot a digital work with little formal knowledge of the industry, and can succeed or establish a following by making the work available for viewing or by publicizing it on the internet.
Directors who have attended and earned degrees from film schools include Francis Ford Coppola (UCLA Film School, MFA film directing), Martin Scorsese (NYU Film School, MFA film directing), and George Lucas (USC Film School, BA film directing). Others, such as Stanley Kubrick, Frank Capra, Bernardo Bertolucci, Quentin Tarantino, James Cameron, and Alfred Hitchcock had no formal college film training at all. Film director Werner Herzog has been quite vocal in arguing against film school. [7]

It was released in video in two versions: a 145-minute version, which aired on CBS, and a 460-minute version available only on video. It was hosted by Jodie Foster, Richard Gere, Sally Field and narrated by James Woods. However, the following note is found on the AFI website, “NOTE: Due to licensing restrictions, the telecasts of the AFI 100…100 Series are not available for distribution or purchase on DVD or VHS.” This apparent discrepancy may result from unclear use of the phrase “…released in video…”, implying that the performance may be available for public purchase. AFI seems to clearly indicate this is not possible.

An updated version of the list, billed as a 10th Anniversary edition, aired on CBS on June 20, 2007, and was hosted by Morgan Freeman.

Criteria

Films were judged according to the following criteria.

1. Feature-length: Narrative format, at least 40 minutes long.
2. American film: English language, with significant creative and/or financial production elements from the United States.
3. Critical Recognition: Formal commendation in print.
4. Major Award Winner: Recognition from competitive events including awards from organizations in the film community and major film festivals.
5. Popularity Over Time: Including figures for box office adjusted for inflation, television broadcasts and syndication, and home video sales and rentals.
6. Historical Significance: A film’s mark on the history of the moving image through technical innovation, visionary narrative devices or other groundbreaking achievements.
7. Cultural Impact: A film’s mark on American society in matters of style and substance.

1998 List

#	Movie	Year
1.	Citizen Kane	1941
2.	Casablanca	1942
3.	The Godfather	1972
4.	Gone with the Wind	1939
5.	Lawrence of Arabia	1962
6.	The Wizard of Oz	1939
7.	The Graduate	1967
8.	On the Waterfront	1954
9.	Schindler’s List	1993
10.	Singin’ in the Rain	1952
11.	It’s a Wonderful Life	1946
12.	Sunset Blvd.	1950
13.	The Bridge on the River Kwai	1957
14.	Some Like It Hot	1959
15.	Star Wars	1977
16.	All About Eve	1950
17.	The African Queen	1951
18.	Psycho	1960
19.	Chinatown	1974
20.	One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest	1975
21.	The Grapes of Wrath	1940
22.	2001: A Space Odyssey	1968
23.	The Maltese Falcon	1941
24.	Raging Bull	1980
25.	E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial	1982
26.	Dr. Strangelove	1964
27.	Bonnie and Clyde	1967
28.	Apocalypse Now	1979
29.	Mr. Smith Goes to Washington	1939
30.	The Treasure of the Sierra Madre	1948
31.	Annie Hall	1977
32.	The Godfather Part II	1974
33.	High Noon	1952
34.	To Kill a Mockingbird	1962
35.	It Happened One Night	1934
36.	Midnight Cowboy	1969
37.	The Best Years of Our Lives	1946
38.	Double Indemnity	1944
39.	Doctor Zhivago	1965
40.	North by Northwest	1959
41.	West Side Story	1961
42.	Rear Window	1954
43.	King Kong	1933
44.	The Birth of a Nation	1915
45.	A Streetcar Named Desire	1951
46.	A Clockwork Orange	1971
47.	Taxi Driver	1976
48.	Jaws	1975
49.	Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs	1937
50.	Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid	1969
51.	The Philadelphia Story	1940
52.	From Here to Eternity	1953
53.	Amadeus	1984
54.	All Quiet on the Western Front	1930
55.	The Sound of Music	1965
56.	MASH	1970
57.	The Third Man	1949
58.	Fantasia	1940
59.	Rebel Without a Cause	1955
60.	Raiders of the Lost Ark	1981
61.	Vertigo	1958
62.	Tootsie	1982
63.	Stagecoach	1939
64.	Close Encounters of the Third Kind	1977
65.	The Silence of the Lambs	1991
66.	Network	1976
67.	The Manchurian Candidate	1962
68.	An American in Paris	1951
69.	Shane	1953
70.	The French Connection	1971
71.	Forrest Gump	1994
72.	Ben-Hur	1959
73.	Wuthering Heights	1939
74.	The Gold Rush	1925
75.	Dances with Wolves	1990
76.	City Lights	1931
77.	American Graffiti	1973
78.	Rocky	1976
79.	The Deer Hunter	1978
80.	The Wild Bunch	1969
81.	Modern Times	1936
82.	Giant	1956
83.	Platoon	1986
84.	Fargo	1996
85.	Duck Soup	1933
86.	Mutiny on the Bounty	1935
87.	Frankenstein	1931
88.	Easy Rider	1969
89.	Patton	1970
90.	The Jazz Singer	1927
91.	My Fair Lady	1964
92.	A Place in the Sun	1951
93.	The Apartment	1960
94.	Goodfellas	1990
95.	Pulp Fiction	1994
96.	The Searchers	1956
97.	Bringing Up Baby	1938
98.	Unforgiven	1992
99.	Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner	1967
100.	Yankee Doodle Dandy	1942

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFI’s_100_Years…100_Movies Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.

Two awesome parts of nostalgia – DOOM and games on Multiple CDs and massive Jewel Cases.   …  Ahh, the old days.

If you don’t learn from the past, you’re doomed to repeat it.  Or at least it’s really gonna feel that way.

Snappy dresser, free sprit, magician, friendly to snakes, naked bassist.